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The assumption is that personality is not something that merely resides within the heads nervous systems and genes of individuals | [
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Rather personality affects and is affected by the social and cultural context At a cultural level it is clear that groups differ tremendously from one another | [
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Cultures such as the Yano Indians of Venezuela are highly indeed a man does not achieve full status as a man until he has killed another man | [
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In contrast cultures such as the San of Botswana are relatively peaceful and agreeable | [
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Overt displays of aggression are discouraged and bring social shame on the | [
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Personality differences among these groups are most likely due to cultural influences | [
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In other words indd 15 PM16 Introductiondifferent cultures may bring out different facets of our personali ties in manifest behaviour | [
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Everyone may have the capacity to be peaceful as well as the capacity for violence as documented by the dramatic changes in violence and peacefulness over time | [
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Which one of these capacities we display may depend on what is acceptable in and encouraged by the culture At the level of individual differences within cultures personality plays itself out in the social sphere | [
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Whether we are dominant or submissive affects such diverse parts of our lives as the conflicts we get into with our partners and the tactics we use to manipulate | [
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Whether we tend to be anxious and depressed or buoyant and optimistic affects the likelihood of social outcomes such as marital stability and divorce | [
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Whether we are introverted or extraverted affects how many friends we will have and our popularity within the group | [
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Many important individual differences are played out in the interpersonal sphere One important social sphere concerns relationships between men and women | [
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At the level of differences between the sexes may operate differently for men than for women | [
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Gender is an essential part of our identities Adjustment Domain The adjustment domain refers to the fact that personality plays a key role in how we cope adapt and adjust to the ebb and flow of events in our lives | [
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Evidence for example shows that personality is linked with important health outcomes such as heart disease | [
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Personality is also linked with behav iours such as smoking drinking and risk taking | [
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Some research has even demonstrated that personality is linked with how long we live In addition to health many important problems in coping and adjustment can be traced to personality | [
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In this domain certain personality features are related to poor adjustment and have been designated as disorders | [
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Chapter 19 is devoted to the disorders such as narcissistic personality disorder antisocial personality disorder and avoidant disorder | [
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An understanding of functioning can be deepened by examining the disorders of personality much as in the field of in which an understanding of normal physiolog ical functioning is often illuminated by the study of disease By studying people in different cultures psychologists are learning how society shapes personality... | [
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In each domain of knowledge there are some prevailing theories so we close this chapter with a discussion of theories | [
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Theories are essential in all scientific endeavours and they serve several useful purposes | [
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A good theory is one that fulfills three purposes in provides a guide for researchers organizes known findings and makes predictions One of the most important purposes of theories is that they serve as a guide for researchers directing them to important questions within an area of research A second useful function of t... | [
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In physics for example there is a bewilder ing array of fall from trees planets exert attraction on each other black holes pull in light | [
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The theory of gravity neatly and powerfully accounts for all of these observations | [
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By accounting for known theories bring both coherence and understanding to the known world | [
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The same applies to personality theories | [
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Theories are viewed as powerful if they succeed in accounting for known findings in addition to guiding psychologists to important domains of inquiry A third purpose of theories is to make predictions about behaviour and psychological phenomena that no one has yet documented or observed | [
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theory of relativity for example predicted that light will bend around large stars long before we had the technology to test this prediction | [
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When researchers finally that light does indeed bend when going around stars such as our sun that finding bore out the power of theory Finally we need to distinguish between scientific theories and beliefs | [
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For example astrology is a collection of beliefs about the relationship between personality and the position of the stars at birth | [
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Some people hold that such relationships are true even in the absence of supporting evidence | [
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To date psychologists have not found reliable factual support using standard research methods and systematic observations for the idea that the positions of the stars at a birth influence personality | [
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As such astrology remains a belief not a scientific theory | [
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Beliefs are often personally useful and crucially important to some people but they are based | [
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Exercise Think of a behaviour pattern or characteristic that you find interesting in yourself or someone you know | [
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Such characteristics as procrastination narcissism and perfectionism are good but any personality characteristic that catches your interest is suitable | [
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Then write six tences about this characteristic one to represent each of the six dispositional biological intrapsychic social and cultural and adjustment | [
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Each sentence should make a statement or ask a question about the characteristic from the perspective of a particular domain | [
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Which domain offers you the most insight about the indd 17 PM18 Introductionon faith not on reliable facts and systematic observations | [
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Theories on the other hand are tested by atic observations that can be repeated by others and that yield similar conclusions In sum three key criteria of personality theories highlight the interplay of theory and research | [
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They guide ers to important domains of inquiry account for known findings and make predictions about new phenomena Standards for Evaluating Personality Theories As we explore each of the six domains it will be useful to bear in mind five scientific standards for evaluating personality comprehensiveness heuristic value ... | [
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Plate tectonic theory in geology for example guided researchers to discover regions of volcanic activity that were unknown prior to the theory | [
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Similarly a good personality theory will guide personality researchers to make discoveries that were previously unknown A third important standard for evaluating theories is the theory provide precise predictions that can be tested Some example certain aspects of theory of intrapsychic been criticized on the grounds th... | [
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As a general rule the testability of a theory rests with the precision of its predictions | [
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Precise theoretical predictions aid progress in the science because they allow theories to be discarded whose predictions are and good theories to be retained whose predictions are empirically | [
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If a theory does not lend itself to being tested empirically it is generally judged to be a poor theory A fourth standard for evaluating personality theories is the theory contain few premises and assumptions or many premises and assumptions of As a general rule theories that require many premises and assumptions to ex... | [
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Although parsimony is important bear in mind that this does not mean that simple theories are always better than complex theories | [
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Indeed simple theories often crash and burn because they fail to meet one or more of the other five standards described for example they may fail to be comprehensive because they explain so little | [
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It is our view that human personality is genuinely complex and so a complex containing many may ultimately be necessary indd 18 PM Chapter 1 Introduction to Personality Psychology 19A fifth standard is compatibility and integration across domains and levels | [
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A theory of cosmology in astronomy that violated known laws of physics for example would be incompatible across levels and hence judged to be fundamentally flawed | [
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A theory of biology that violated known principles of chemistry similarly would be judged to be fatally flawed | [
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In the same way a personality theory in one domain that violated principles in another domain would be judged highly problematic | [
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For example a theory of the development of personality dispositions that was inconsistent with knowledge in physiology and genetics would be judged to be problematic | [
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Similarly a theory of evolutionary influences on personality that contradicted what is known about cultural influences or vice versa would be problematic | [
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Although the criterion of compatibility and integration across domains and levels is a principle in most ences Tooby Cosmides it has rarely been used to evaluate the adequacy of personality theories | [
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We believe that the approach taken in this book highlights the importance of the criterion of compatibility across levels of personality analysis In sum as you progress through the six domains of personality functioning keep in mind the five standards by which theories within each domain can be heuristic value testabil... | [
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This theory is comprehensive guides biologists to new discoveries has led to thousands of empirical tests is highly parsimonious and is compatible with known laws in adjacent scientific disciplines | [
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Evolutionary theory provides the grand unifying framework within which most biologists conduct their work | [
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Ideally the field of personality psychology would also contain such a grand unifying theory | [
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Alas at the current time it does not Perhaps Sigmund Freud the inventor of psychoanalytic theory provided the most ambitious attempt at a grand unifying theory of personality Chapter | [
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And many grand theories have followed | [
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But over the past several decades most personality researchers have come to the realization that the field currently indd 19 PM20 Introductionlacks a grand unifying theory | [
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Instead most have focused on more specific domains of functioning | [
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It is pre cisely for this reason that our book is organized around the six represent the domains in which progress scientific findings and new discoveries are being made In our view an ultimate grand theory of personality psychology will have to unify all six domains | [
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It will have to explain personality characteristics and how they develop over time | [
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It will have to explain evolutionary genetic and physiological underpinnings of personality | [
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It will have to explain deeply rooted motives and dynamic intrapsychic processes | [
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It will have to explain how people experience the world and process information about it | [
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It will have to explain how personality affects and is affected by the social and cultural context in which people conduct their lives and cultural | [
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And it will have to explain how people cope and well as how adjustment they encounter the numerous adaptive problems they face over the bumpy course of their lives adjustment Although the field of personality psychology currently lacks a grand theory we believe that work in these six domains will ultimately provide the... | [
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Concept Check What does it mean to say that personality consists of both traits and What does it mean to say that personality traits are organized and relatively What are the three levels of analysis in personality Provide an example of each Name and describe the five standards for evaluating personality theories | [
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What is a Key t erms adjectives personalitypsychological traitsaverage tendenciespsychological mechanismswithin the individualorganizedenduringinfluential interaction adaptationsenvironmenthuman natureindividual differencesdifferences among groupsnomotheticidiographicdomain of knowledgedispositional domainbiological do... | [
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You are faced with a choice among numerous candidates and par ties to vote for | [
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The personalities of the candidates may prove to be critical to your decision | [
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How will they hold up under What are their attitudes toward climate change or Will they stand tough in negotiating with leaders from other This chapter is concerned with the means by which we gain information about other sources from which we gather personality data and the research designs we use in the scientific stu... | [
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You might want to know what others say about their strengths in dealing with foreign an observer report | [
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You also might want to place the party leaders in a 21 indd 21 PMmore controlled situation such as a debate and see how each acquire test data | [
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Furthermore you might want to know about certain events in their lives such as whether they have served in the Armed Forces been arrested or been caught in an embarrassing sexual history data Each of these sources of data reveals something about the personalities of the party leaders yet each alone is incomplete and ma... | [
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Party leaders may a tough stance on climate change but then fail to follow through on it | [
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Observers may report that one party leader is honest yet they may be unaware of lies the party leader has told | [
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A debate may show one party leader in a positive light but perhaps another candidate happened to have a cold that day | [
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And the public record of serving in the Canadian Armed Forces may not reveal the family connections that enabled the party leader to avoid combat | [
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Each source of data provides important information | [
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But each source by itself is of limited value | [
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It offers an incomplete picture This chapter covers three topics related to personality assessment and research | [
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The first concerns where we get our sources of personality data and the actual measures that personality psychologists use | [
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The second topic concerns how we evaluate the quality of those measures | [
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The third topic pertains to how we use these measures in actual research designs to study personality Much of the discussion surrounding political candidates involves their personalities Stock Canadian Denette Sources of Personality Data Perhaps the most obvious source of information about a person is data tion a perso... | [
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Clearly individuals may not always provide accurate information for a variety of reasons such as the desire to present themselves in a positive light | [
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Nevertheless the journals that publish the latest research in personality reveal that is the most common method for measuring personality Ones Data data can be obtained through a variety of means including interviews that pose questions to a person periodic reports by a person to record the events as they happen and qu... | [
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The most obvious reason is that individuals have access to a wealth of information about themselves that is inaccessible to anyone else such as their habitual level of anxiety g Vazire | [
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Individuals can report about their feelings emotions desires beliefs and private experiences | [
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They can report about their as well as their perceptions of the esteem in which others hold them | [
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They can report about their innermost fears and fantasies | [
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And they can report about immediate and goals | [
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Because of this potential wealth of information is an indispensable source of personality data can take a variety of forms ranging from in the questions to questions | [
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Sometimes these are referred to as unstructured such as me about the parties you like the and structured like loud and crowded answer true or per sonality tests | [
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A prime example of the form of is called the Twenty Statements Test | [
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